Figure 1

The spectrum of monocyte-derived suppressor APCs. Suppressor macrophages and DCs can be generated from monocytes using M-CSF or GM-CSF, with or without IL-4. Development of immature DCs into mature, activating DCs can be blocked by various substances, including rapamycin or dexamethasone and vitamin D. DCs can also be rendered tolerogenic by culture in low-dose GM-CSF or by addition of suppressive cytokines, such as IL-10 or TGF-β1. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) can induce a suppressor phenotype in co-cultured macrophages. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) can be generated by exposing monocytes/macrophages to tumour-secreted factors, most notably PGE₂.