Table 1 Complications after organ transplantation and therapeutic options

Ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI)

NK and NKT cells, neutrophils, macrophages

NF-AT, NF-κB, STATs,

T-cell depletion (rATG/alemtuzumab)

MAPK-p38, ERK, JNK

NF-κB, AP-1

Hyper-acute rejection

B- and plasma cells

NF-AT, NF-κB, AKT

IvIG, T- and B-cell depletion (rATG, alemtuzumab, rituximab), bortezomib

MAPK-p38, ERK, JNK, AP-1

Acute rejection

Cells from the innate and adaptive immune system

NF-AT

CNI

PKC, NF-κB

Sotrastaurin/AEB071,

JAK1/3

tofacitinib/CP-690,550

NF-κB

Belatacept

mTOR

Everolimus/sirolimus

T-cell depletion (rATG/alemtuzumab)

Chronic rejection

Memory T cells,

NF-AT, NF-κB, AKT, PI3K, MAPK-p38, ERK, JNK, AP-1

Anti-CD2 fusion protein (alefacept)

B cells

Depletion of memory T cells (efalizumab)

Tolerance

FoxP3+ regulatory T cells

mTOR

Everolimus/sirolimus